Changes After Independence | History Form Four
Topic Name: Changes in Political, Social and Economic Policies After Independence
Reflection questions
(a) Do you think the social, political and economic changes that happened after independence were necessary?
(b) What should African countries do to achieve true and sustainable changes in the political, social and economic spheres?
Background to post-colonial changes in political, social and economic policies
African needed changes because of many challenges that has resulted from several decades of colonial domination.
What African countries inherited after independence?
- Weak economies, which were characterised by sale of primary commodities like cotton.
- Poverty due to colonial exploitative system.
- Regional imbalance as there were regions which developed more than others. In such regions, colonialist had built infrastructure such as railways, roads, schools, health centres and dispensaries. These services were established because the colonialist had certain interest in those regions.
- ignorance: the majority of African girls and sons from peasant families were denied the right to education, while the sons and daughter of local chiefs were given education.
- Also African countries inherited military, legal, political and cultural institutions which needed reforms.
In Tanzania, many changes in government and political institutions took place soon after independence.
After 1961, Tanganyika continued to be under the British monarch but from 9th December 1962, it became a republic.
In Tanganyika, transition of power from colonial to post-colonial rulers was largely smooth. In the former Portuguese colonies, such transitions were complicated. For instance, Angola achieved independence in 1975 but the country plunged into civil war because the colonial regime did not provide smooth transfer of power. As a result the civil war destroyed Angola for may years.
In Zanzibar, the British gave political power to the minority Arabs in 1963. consequently, that led to a revolution in 1964.
Political, ideological and administrative systems in Africa after independence
Independent African countries inherited political parties with different ideologies.
Some of the parties were organised along religious, social class, regional or ethnic lines.
In Tanganyika, there were Tanganyika African National Union (TANU), which was a political party with the largest number of members, United Tanganyika Party (UTP), supported by European settlers and Africa chiefs, and African National Congress (ANC), headed by Zuberi Mtemvu.
In Uganda there were Uganda People’s Congress (UPC), which had the largest number of members, and the Democratic Party (DP) of Baganda.
In Ghana there were United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC), led by Kwame Nkrumah.
In Kenya there were Kenya African National Union (KANU) and Kenya African Democratic Union (KADU). the former was dominated by the Kikuyu and Luo, and the latter was formed by Daniel Arap Moi and Ronald Ngala to countercheck the Kikuyu and Luo’s dominance in the politics of Kenya.
In Zimbabwe there were Zimbabwe African People’s Union (ZAPU), which was led by Joshua Nkomo, and Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), which was fromed by Ndabaning Sithole.
These political parties had different ideologies and historical background. Some of them were influenced by colonialist and were formed to delay and weaken nationalists movements in their countries.
Changes made:
Introduction of single party system: In Tanganyika and Kenya, for example, the single-party system was introduced in 1965.
Reasons for single party system
1. It was introduced to prevent imperialist influence on politics and power transfer.
2. To reduce parliamentary opposition.
3. To consolidate unity among people. This was because some political parties had elements of ethnic or religious intolerance.
4. To promote national cohesion and harmony.
Changes of political ideology were influenced by external forces such as the socialist forces under USSR.
Many Africans countries joined the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM).
Countries which were part of the Non-Aligned Movement did not align themselves with any of the two ideological blocs (capitalism and socialism). this was done so that they could be neutral in the global political relations.
Tanzania, Ghana, Uganda and Zambia adopted some form of African socialism, which was known by different names such as: Ujamaa in Tanzania and Humanism in Zambia.
Reasons for using different ideologies:
Help to stabilise country politically.
To improve economic situations.
Countries under socialism emphasised on:
Collective ownership of the major means of production.
Social solidarity.
Some of the African leaders who adopted the socialist ideology were:
Julius Nyerere of Tanzania, Kenneth Kaunda of Zambia, Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana, Leopold Seghor of Senegal, Ahmed Sekou Toure of Guinea and Ahmed Ben Bella of Algeria.
Why adoption of socialism:
To end social and economic inequalities.
To bring about equal and unity among Africans.
To end capitalism.
Kenya, Nigeria and Ivory Coast adopted liberal democracy with some capitalism elements.
Ethiopia, Angola and Mozambique adopted Afro-Marxism.
Question
Has the introduction of multi-party in Tanzania brought any social, political and economic development? Justify your response.
Some African countries had to use revolutions to establish majority rule.
The 1964 Zanzibar Revolution brought about true political independence in Zanzibar.
The revolution was inevitable, since the British had handed over political power to the Arab minority in December 1963.
Africans in Zanzibar wanted to transfer power from the minority to the majority.
Some African states united to safeguard their political independence and sovereignty. The union of Tanganyika and Zanzibar was a good example.
Reasons for Zanzibar and Tanganyika union
- Uniting the two states.
- safe guiding their independence and sovereignty.
- Preventing foreign influence on internal affairs.
TANU and ASP were merged to form Chama Cha Mapinduzi (CCM) in 1977.
The Arusha Declaration of 1967 was another attempt to abolish the capitalist tendencies and the colonial ideology in Tanzania. All the major means of production were nationalised and put under the government. Equality was emphasised.
President Milton Obote of Uganda established the Common Man’s Charter on 8th October 1969 in an attempt to build unity among Ugandans and to transfer power to the people. The Charter abolished chiefdoms throughout Uganda. It also intended to be the basis for the future economic, political and social development so that Uganda could be transformed into a socialist state.
Why education was made compulsory in Tanzania?
- To make Tanzanians value their Unity.
- To make Tanzanians loyal to their government.
- To strengthen solidarity.
- To build patriotism.
Conditions that necessitated changing the political, ideological and administrative systems
The administrative structures inherited from the colonial regimes did not treat people equally.
Forces of neo-colonialism: for example, in the democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and Togo, colonialists used puppets to assassinate strong and patriotic leaders. For example, Patrice Lumumba and Silvanus Olympio were brutally murdered.
Some political parties were planted by colonialist. For example in Tanganyika there was the United Tanganyika Party (UTP), which was planted by the colonialists to weaken TANU’s efforts to struggle for independence. So it was thought that the single party system would best contain the problems created by the puppets by dealing with any loopholes which the former colonial powers might use to weaken the newly independent African countries. At the time, the multi party system was regarded as a destabilising factor against African unity, which would cause civil wars.
Activity
Conduct a class debate on the topic: A single-party system is better than the multiparty system in Tanzania.
Challenges to the political, ideological and administrative changes
1. Civil wars
For example, the civil war in Uganda which began in the 1970s and ended in 1986 when President Yoweri Kaguta Museveni came to power.
Another Civil war involved the Hutu and Tutsi in Rwanda in 1994.
Similary, countries like Somalia, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia and Eritrea are facing this problem. Several coups d’etat resulted in the African countries such as Nigeria, Sudan, Libya, Liberia, Guinea, Niger, Burkinafaso and Egypt.
2. Neo-colonialism
Some of the African leaders established links with the former colonial masters, thereby becoming puppets. This hindered the introduction of the new political, ideological and administrative systems that would work for the interest of the Africans.
Impacts of the changes in political, ideological and administrative systems in Africa
1. Promoted political stability in some of the African countries
After the establishment of the new political ideology and administrative systems, democracy and general involvement of indigenous African people in governance have considerably improved.
2. Brought unity and solidarity
For example, one political party system united people at the time.
3. It improved equality
Equality improved in terms of ownership of the means of production among African people contrary to the situation that prevailed in the colonial era.
The economic situation in Africa after independence
The post-colonial African states experienced economic challenges as explained below.
1. Dependent monocultural cash-crop economy
The colonialist created a dependent economy in Africa so as to extend their exploitative tentacles into the newly independent African states. For example, through monocultural economy Africans continued to produce agricultural products and minerals to feed the Europeans industries and, in turn, imported manufactured goods. In such a situation, Africans produced what they did not consume such as raw materials like sisal, tobacco, minerals and coffee and consumed what they did not produce. Europeans countries still exploit African resources through reduction of prices of the raw materials they bought from Africa and by raising prices of their industrial products.
2. Weak and underdeveloped industrial sector
Most of the industries established focused on processing and manufacturing of simple tools like hoes and machetes.
3. Inadequate infrastructure
The infrastructure available was unevenly located. Railway and roads were constructed in places where the colonialists established their economic activities.
4. Uneven regional economic development
There were some regions, which were economically more developed than others.
5. Growing socio-economic gap between the rich and the poor
Most of the people were peasants who depended on a subsistence economy and, therefore, could not sustain their livelihood because of exploitation and the colonial economic system.
Strategies used to make economic changes in Africa
1. Increase production
Nation-building campaigns were introduced in most African countries. Example were the feed yourself campaign in Ghana, which encouraged small scale farmers to increase food production.
Other campaigns were Harambee in Kenya and the Self-Reliance policy introduced in Tanzania in 1967.
Ujamaa village were introduced through the nationalisation policy. For example, Vijiji vya Ujamaa and Vijiji vya Maendeleo were introduced in mainland Tanzania in the period from 1974 to 1982 as part of a large-scale resettlement program. Agriculture was declared the backbone of the national economy in many African countries.
2. Establishment of schemes
Different schemes were established such as Chilalu Agricultural Development Unity (CADU) in Ethiopia, Lilongwe Land Development Programme (LLDP) in Malawi, the Special Rural Development Programme (SRDP) in Kenya and the Intensive Development Zone (IDZ) in Zambia.
3. Development plan
The first Three-Year Development Plan started from 1961 to 1964, and the first Five-Year Development Plan started from 1964-1969. these economic development plan focused on promoting the national and individual economies and eradicating social inequality between the rich and the poor.
4. Nationalisation
Nationalisation was also adopted in some countries to enable African masses to have full control of the major means of production. Tanzania introduced the Arusha Declaration in 1967 in an attempt to address injustice in land ownership as many Africans had lost their land to the white settlers during colonialism.
5. Development of industrial sector
Under colonialism, African local industries were destroyed so that the colonies could provide raw materials to European industries. African nations introduced policies and strategies so that government could control the existing industries for the benefit of the African people.
Local industries like textile industries were established in Tanzania. Such industries include Musoma Textile Industry (MUTEX) and Mwanza Textile Industry (MWATEX). others were Cigarette Company Limited (TCC), which was established in 1961 as East African Tobacco Industry. It later became Tanzania Cigarette Company and was nationalised in 1975. Wazo Hill Cement Company was established in 1966 to produce and sell cement. The government also set up Motor Corporation (TAMCO) in Kibaha and General Tyre Factory in Arusha. TAMCO dealt with the assembling of Scania vehicles and General Tyre Factory produced tyres.
Most of the newly established industries were owned and controlled by the state.
Problem faced the post-colonial Industrial strategy
(i) Most of the industries were consumer-processed goods such as canned food, soft drinks and beer. All the essential goods needed by the majority of people continued to be imported.
(ii) Machinery and manufactured raw materials continued to be imported. African countries go on importing machines and spare parts to maintain the processing industries.
Therefore, changes made in the industrial sector simply maintained and expanded the pre-existing processing industries rather than introducing heavy industries.
6. Establishment of regional economic integration
Different economic communities were established for co-operation purposes. Example of the established communities are:
(a) The current East African Community (EAC)
Its origin to the East African Governor’s conference held in 1923 when the colonial governors from Tanganyika, Kenya and Uganda met to co-ordinate matters of common interest in their colonies.
In 1967, the President of the three East African countries (Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda) established the EAC, which collapsed in 1977.
EAC collapsed because of political, economic and social conflicts among the member states.
EAC was revived in 1999.
Now EAC consists of Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, South Sudan, Rwanda, Burundi and Democratic Republic of Congo.
Aim of the current EAC
- facilitating joint economic development among the three member states. For instance, EAC is charged with the task of promoting free trade among the partners states, ensuring free movement of people in the region and providing services such as transport.
(b) The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)
This community focuses on joint social and economic activities done in West African countries.
It promotes trade, security and neighbourlines among West African countries.
(c) The Southern African development Coordination Conference (SADCC)
It was established in 1980 in Lusaka, Zambia.
In 1992 it was transformed into Southern African Development Community (SADC).
It promotes social-economic development and security of the countries in Southern Africa.
(d) The organisation of African Unity (OAU)
It was formed in 1963 in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
It became African Union (AU) in 2002.
It was formed to facilitate the development of African countries politically, socially and economically.
Co-operations have always facilitated the construction of infrastructure such as tarmac roads, railway lines, pipelines, telecommunications systems and harbours. An example is TAZARA, which links Tanzania with Zambia.
Tarmac roads were constructed to connect African countries, for example the road that runs from Isaka (inland port) in Shinyanga-Tanzania via Kigali-Rwanda to Bujumbura-Burundi.
Another example was the construction of the TAZAMA oil pipeline from Tanzania to Zambia.
Establishment of the African Development Bank (ADB)
It was established to promote and facilitate economic activities in Africa.
ADB provides loans to African countries for the commercial, industrial and agricultural sectors in an attempt to solve the economic challenges.
Exercise
1. Analyse the conditions that led to changes in ideological, political and administrative systems in Africa.
2. Appraise the economic development strategies adopted in Africa after independence.
Challenges of the economic policies adopted in Africa
The attempts to strengthen African economies to some extent were stagnated by the Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) of the 1980s.
African countries were obliged to adhere to the hard conditionalities attached to the SAPs.
The implementation of SAP was a turning point for African economies from the mid-1980s to the present.
SAP constitutionalities brought fundamental changes which largely affected African economic structure.
It destroyed the African developing economies through the introduction of free market economy that led to massive importation of foreign manufactured goods. The imported goods were cheaper than those produced in Africa. Hence destruction of African economy was inevitable as African’s industry totally suffocated because they could not compete with foreign imported goods.
Social policy changes in Africa after independence
Social policy changes were made to ensure availability and accessibility of services like education, health care, clean water and electricity in Africa. This was done to improve the quality of services and to reduce illiteracy in the newly independent African countries.
Reasons for changing social policies in Africa after independence
Independent African countries inherited most of the colonial structures for providing social services which did not favour Africans. for example, only few Africans accessed primary education and the majority did not have it.
Despite denying Africans the right to education, the colonial education itself was not intended to address African problems in general.
Even those who received education could not get into higher levels. Only few went beyond the two years of basic education, which focused on reading, writing and arithmetic.
The education received could not help them to sustain African life.
Schools were very few and unevenly distributed in many countries.
There were also racial discrimination in schools. Europeans received the highest quality education, followed by Asians and finally Africans.
At independence, all African states inherited a chaotic system of electricity, water and housing services.
There was uneven distribution of these services between urban and rural areas.
The rural population hardly had any access to electricity, clean water and decent houses.
Few people in urban areas had electricity, clean water and good houses.
Health services were also very poor, with rural areas suffering more.
The people in rural areas lived in abject poverty and had to work long distance to access clean water for their livestock and other domestic uses.
There were few health centres in the colonies and some of them had inadequate facilities. For example, they lacked medicine, syringes and other medical equipment.
People suffered from diseases such as bilharzia, malaria, typhoid, polio, measles and cholera.
There were also high infant mortality rates owing to lack of good maternal health services.
Changes in educational policies in Africa
Changing the policies was necessary for empowering human resources in Africa.
New education policies aimed at improving people’s knowledge, skills and competencies.
With quality education, Africans were expected to fight effectively against poverty, diseases and ignorance.
Education was a tool for creating equity and equality among people in African societies.
In 1978 primary education was made compulsory to all Tanzanian children.
Many other efforts were made to train enough teachers so that they could carry forward the development agenda.
Different laws were made to foster educational development in Africa. For example, in Tanzania introduced the Universal Primary Education (UPE) Act of 1974 which made the ‘Musoma Resolution.’
As a results of these steps, school fees were abolished and primary and secondary school education was made free to all Tanzanian children. This increased access to education.
In Kenya there were similar programmes such as Harambee and Self-effort programmes. These programmes helped to increase access to education to education for Kenyans.
Emphasis was also put on changing the curriculum to suit the African context.
Another attempt taken was to remove racial discrimination in schools. Act No. 37, of 1962 was introduced to remove social inequalities and any other form of discrimination in education. The law was a replacement of the 1927 Education ordinance Act, which propagated social inequalities and discrimination in education during the colonial era.
Furthermore, colonial education managers were replaced by African ones. The ministry of National Education was introduced and given authority to manage all education activities. Under the 1969 Education Act, all schools, both public and private, were required to use the same curriculum and students sat for national examination after completing each cycle for certification and placement purposes.
Kiswahili as the national language was made the medium of instruction for primary education in Tanzania. English remained the medium of instruction in secondary education and higher learning institutions.
Adult education programmes were introduced all over the country to educate illiterate adults. They were taught writing, reading and arithmetic. Different radio stations programmes were also introduced for providing education to them.
Achievement of post-colonial educational changes
Helped to expand primary, secondary and higher learning institutions. For example, by 1980 Tanzania had already enrolled 3,361,228 pupils for primary education, 67,396 students for secondary education and 7,468 for tertiary education.
Increased the number of schools at both primary and secondary education.
Universities were established after tertiary education in Africa. For example, the University of Dar es Salaam in Tanzania, Makerere University in Uganda and the University of Nairobi in Kenya.
Changes produced educators and experts in different fields such as medicine, engineering, accounts, law and economics.
Illiteracy levels or rates were greatly reduced.
Activity
In groups:
a. Use Tanzania as a case study to examine the educational changes made in Africa;
b. Evaluate the effects of the changes; and
c. Suggest other measures that should be taken to achieve further educational development in Tanzania.
Weakness of the changes in educational policies
The entire educational structures, patterns, traditions and mode of teaching remained the same as they were during the colonial era.
Not all people could be absorbed into formal education system.
There were shortage of teachers as well as teaching and learning facilities like books, libraries and laboratories.
Use of English language in secondary school as a medium of instruction become a great challenge to most African students because they did not have a good foundation in the language.
Several educational programmes and infrastructural facilities in African countries were stagnated by internal and external political and economic crises. For example the World Economic Depression towards the end of 1980s largely hindered the success of the newly established education policies in Africa.
Economic upheaval forced African countries including Tanzania, to adopt the Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) in the 1980s which, in turn escalated Africans’ dependence on the capitalist nations.
The adoption of SAPs created an opportunity for the private sector to invest in education. This led to re-introduction of school fees. Many parents could not afford the school fees because of severe poverty.
Activity
In pairs, conduct a library and online search on the adoption of the structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) an then:
a. Critically, examine the effects of the Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) on the provision of education, using Tanzania as a case study; and
b. Suggest other measures that should be taken to achieve further educational development in Tanzania.
Changes in health services after independence
More dispensaries were opened, especially in rural areas.
District and regional hospitals, as well as referral hospitals were also opened.
Private companies, individuals, religious organisations and voluntary groups also participated in the provision of health services.
The provision of health services focused more on preventive measures rather than on curative ones. Different campaigns to prevent diseases such as sanitation campaigns were introduced to counteract the spread of diseases in Tanzania. For example, Tanzania government provided vaccines to eradicate polios and measles.
Training of more medical doctors and nurses was given a high priority so as to increase their number.
To reduce mother-infant mortality rates the other target was to rehabilitate, improve and construct several infrastructural facilities to provide health services to mothers and children.
Equal rights among people, regardless of their races and social status, that is, they were accessible to all people in rural and urban areas.
Activity
In groups, conduct a library and online search on changes in health service policies and campaigns in Africa after independence and then:
a. Critically, examine the effects of the changes and campaigns to date in Africa using Tanzania as a case study; and
b. Suggest other measures that should be taken to improve the quality of health services in Tanzania.
Strengths of the changes in health services
Led to decrease in the number of risky, long-term diseases such as measles, leprosy and small pox among children.
Reduction of mortality rates among children. This was because of establishment of mother and child health clinics in every regional and district.
Challenges of changes in health services
Shortage of funds: funds was needed for purchasing medical equipment and hiring skilled personnel. Shortage of funds made it difficult to improve the quality of health services.
Uneven distribution of health services centres.
Insufficient education concerning the health of children: As a result, malnutrition among young children in rural and urban areas still affects people.
There is no provision of quality health services.
Water and housing services in Africa after independence
The government and TANU leaders encouraged people to move to collective villages so that social services could be provided to them with less difficulty and low cost. This included access to clean water, electricity and other social services.
Another strategy deployed was to encourage the establishment of self-help schemes to make the rural population dig water wells, water channels and small dams, and build modern houses. In Kenya, for example, such self-help schemes were called Harambee.
People were mobilised to build modern houses. Mass education was given to them on the importance of building modern houses. One of the important arguments was that a modern house would help to contain some communicable diseases. For example, people were told that a house with poor ventilation and sanitary facilities would cause diseases such as tuberculosis and spinal cerebral meningitis. In Tanzania, the government established a national bank known as Tanzania Housing Bank, which provided loans to those who wanted to build modern houses.
Government encouraged people in rural areas to roof their houses with corrugated iron sheets. At the same time, in places like Dar es Salaam the government built houses for its civil servants, for example in Magomeni and Kinondoni.
Apart from all developments slums increased in cities such as Kibera in Nairobi, Soweto in Johannesburg and Manzese in Dar es Salaam.
Results of the changes in housing and water services
People were taught the importance of living in modern houses.
People were motivated to drink clean water to contain water-borne diseases.
By 1973, about 2.04 million people had access to tap water. This helped to control some communicable water diseases.
Housing schemes led to urban development.
Activity
In groups, conduct a library and online search on housing and water policy changes and campaigns in Africa after independence and then:
a. Critically, examine the effects of the changes and campaigns in Africa using Tanzania as a case study; and
b. Suggest other measures that should be taken to improve housing and provision of water in Tanzania. Present your suggestion in writing.
Challenges of changes in housing and water services
Financial constraints: The government could not meet the need for modern houses by all people. Building materials such as cement, corrugated iron sheets and ceiling boards were very expensive.
People negative attitudes towards self-help schemes: The pilot water projects implemented by the central government in Tanzania collapsed. People were not ready to dig water wells or channels in their villages. In some cases, some of the completed water projects did not last long because villagers stole water pumps or water pipes and stopcocks. Also there were no money to buy new water pumps and pipes when they developed some mechanical faults.
Villagers were not involved in the process: Most construction projects were centrally planned by the government and handed over to villagers after being completed. Villages could not have the sense of ownership. Due to that reason most social services provision facilities were destroyed by villagers.
Increasing population in urban area: It posed a great challenge to the provision of social services. For example the migration of people from rural to urban areas caused a crisis in the provision of water services in towns.
Exercise
Answer the following questions:
1. Examine the reasons that led to changes in social policies in African after independence.
2. To what extent did changes in social policies in Africa after independence improve the living conditions of the people.
Revision exercise
Answer the following questions:
1. Assess the contribution of the changes in political, ideological and administrative systems to the development of the newly independent African states.
2. Explain the reason behind the political, ideological and administrative changes after independence in Africa.
3. Assess the strengths, weaknesses and contribution of the newly created political, ideological and administrative systems in independent African states.
4. Explain the features of social services in African states after independence.
5. Analyse the objectives of education in Africa after independence.
6. Appraise the features of health services in Africa after independence.
7. Show how the villagilisation policy improved the provision of social services after independence.
8. Examine the effects of the Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) on African socio-economic development.
9. Appraise the pattern of housing in Africa after independence.
10. Assess the strength in the expansion of education in Tanzania after independence.
